What are peptides?

Peptides are short chains of amino acids—the same “building blocks” that make up proteins—involved in signaling, hormone regulation, and countless cellular processes throughout the body. Special covalent bonds, known as peptide bonds, connect one amino acid to another. Visually, one can think of a peptide as a chain of beads, with each bead representing an amino acid. These chains range from two amino acids in length (dipeptides) up to approximately 100 amino acids.

Nomenclature

• Oligopeptides (Short Peptides): Chains of fewer than ~10 amino acids.
• Polypeptides: Chains of roughly 10–100 amino acids.
• Proteins: Chains of more than ~100 amino acids.

Biologically, the distinction between a peptide and a protein also depends on function and structure. A chain long enough to fold into a stable, functional 3D structure is usually regarded as a protein, even if it falls slightly below the 100-amino acid benchmark.

Contemporary peptide use

While not new—insulin is a peptide discovered in 1921 and first synthesized in 1978—peptides have recently found a massive audience in the biohacking and fitness communities. The overlap between these groups is significant: proper nutrition, cardio, and resistance training form the foundation for both cohorts. Consequently, many of the peptides used are identical. (Note: TRT, or testosterone replacement therapy, is also popular in these circles but is a steroid hormone, not a peptide, and is outside the scope of this article). Mercifully, many peptides cannot be patented, making them freely available online in various formulations (injectables, topicals, nasal sprays, etc.). This is because endogenous peptides—those made naturally in the body—cannot be patented in their identical, naturally occurring form due to a lack of novelty; prior art anticipates them.

Note on patents and “prior art”

For a patent to be granted, an invention must be novel. With naturally occurring peptides, the “blueprint” already exists in nature. For example, the prior art for BPC-157 was established in 1993 through the first scientific publication detailing its isolation from human gastric juice, its amino acid sequence, and its cytoprotective properties. Because BPC-157’s sequence was described in the public domain and not simultaneously patented as a specific novel drug composition, the natural sequence itself became unpatentable.

How are peptides made?

Peptides are primarily synthesized using Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis (SPPS). This is a stepwise process that builds chains from the C-terminus to the N-terminus on a solid resin support. This means they are assembled in reverse order relative to the standard biological N-to-C notation. For example, the tripeptide GHK (glycyl-histidyl-lysine, or Gly-His-Lys) is synthesized as follows:

1. Attachment: Protected lysine (the C-terminal amino acid) is bound to the resin via its carboxyl group.
2. Coupling: The lysine’s free amino group is deprotected, and protected histidine is added.
3. Final Addition: The histidine is deprotected, and protected glycine (the N-terminal amino acid) is added.
4. Cleavage: The chain is cleaved from the resin to yield the final sequence: H₂N-Gly-His-Lys-COOH.

The Supply Chain: “The Great Offshoring”

Unfortunately, one of the effects of the “Great Offshoring” following World War II is that China has become the primary global supplier of amino acid synthesis (with the notable exception of Japan’s excellent Ajinomoto and Kyowa Hakko labs). While the final step of peptide synthesis often occurs stateside, the foundational raw materials are almost exclusively Chinese. This places US-based firms at significant risk in the event of supply chain disruptions.

This vulnerability is not unique to peptides. A tremendous volume of pharmaceutical drugs sold in the US, including those from pharma giants like Eli Lilly, rely on active ingredients or precursors imported from China. The same applies to commodities like vitamin C.

Why isn’t production domestic? Economics.

China’s low labor, energy, and regulatory costs make bulk fermentation (e.g., lysine) 30–50% cheaper, allowing them to undercut US producers via subsidies and market dumping.

Economic barriers to US production

• High Costs: US labor costs (~10x that of China), strict EPA regulations, and higher energy prices make domestic production uncompetitive for commodity feed-grade amino acids, which comprise 80% of the market.
• Subsidies & Dumping: China floods the US market with cheap imports (e.g., lysine imports tripled between 2019–2020), destroying local margins and putting thousands of manufacturing jobs at risk.
• Scale: China holds 60–80% of global capacity, leveraging massive fermentation facilities. Meanwhile, the US industry has retreated to focus only on high-value, pharma-grade amino acids.

The Environmental Factor

Fermentation produces wastewater and CO₂. While modern processes recycle ~90% of the water and utilize corn waste, China’s lax enforcement of environmental standards amplifies pollution. This is not a barrier in the US—domestic plants are cleaner—but they are significantly costlier to operate. Waste management alone does not explain the offshoring; only significant changes in policy or tariffs are likely to revive US output.